- This step draws no data on the map.
Mined everywhere, refined in one place
For most materials in the atlas, refining is held by fewer countries than mining. One material goes the other way, and for some the comparison cannot be made.
Scroll, or use the step links. The map follows the step in the middle of the screen. Nothing plays by itself.
Step 1 of 7
How concentration is measured
Many countries mine a material. Fewer refine it. This story compares the two stages, material by material, with one figure: the Herfindahl–Hirschman index (HHI). It is the sum of the squared percentage shares of all countries. One country alone gives the highest possible value; many equal producers give a value near zero.
Each comparison uses one source for both stages. Figures from two sources are never mixed.
Step 2 of 7
Lithium: mined in several countries
In the IEA table for 2025 , Australia mines 34.3 % of the world's lithium, China 23.1 % and Chile 17.2 % . The three largest together have 74.6 % .
The mining HHI is 2 136.
↑ Back: How concentration is measured↓ Next: Lithium: refined mostly in one
Step 3 of 7
Lithium: refined mostly in one
In the same table and year, China refines 73.7 % of the world's lithium. Chile follows with 16.3 % .
The refining HHI is 5 722. Refining minus mining gives a gap of +3 586 .
↑ Back: Lithium: mined in several countries↓ Next: Rare earths and graphite: the same direction
Step 4 of 7
Rare earths and graphite: the same direction
Rare earths (IEA, 2025): China mines 58.8 % and refines 83.3 % . The HHI goes from 3 842 in mining to 7 009 in refining, a gap of +3 167 .
Graphite (IEA, 2025 ): mining is already concentrated, with an HHI of 6 522. For the stage the IEA calls “Refined battery-grade supply (IEA)” it is 8 922; China has 94.4 % of that stage.
↑ Back: Lithium: refined mostly in one↓ Next: Copper: two sources, two figures
Step 5 of 7
Copper: two sources, two figures
USGS, 2025 (estimated): mining HHI 1 036, refining HHI 2 532, gap +1 496 . It names Chile first in mining and China first in refining.
IEA, 2025: mining HHI 1 011, refining HHI 2 359, gap +1 348 . It names Chile and China.
The two sources count differently, so the atlas shows both and does not average them. The map is shaded with the USGS mining table.
↑ Back: Rare earths and graphite: the same direction↓ Next: Nickel: the other way round
Step 6 of 7
Nickel: the other way round
For nickel the order is reversed (IEA, 2025). The mining HHI is 4 119 and the refining HHI is 3 040: a gap of −1 079 .
Indonesia mines 62.7 % of the world's nickel and refines 45.1 % ; China refines 31.1 % . Refining is spread over more countries than mining, so the title of this story does not hold for every material.
↑ Back: Copper: two sources, two figures↓ Next: Where the comparison cannot be made
Step 7 of 7where the data ends
Where the comparison cannot be made
A gap needs a table by country for both stages, from one source. For these materials the open data does not have that:
Gallium: no open mining series by country. Germanium: no open series by country. Tungsten: no open refining series by country. Antimony: no open refining series by country.
The atlas draws no gap for them and does not estimate one.